Scholarly Passover & Lord's Supper

The Lord's Supper/Eucharist as a Fulfillment

of the Jerusalem Temple Sacrifices

By S.C.T. Macdonald

When I was nine, my family moved to a Jewish neighborhood. Although my family was Christian, our gracious neighbors invited us to participate in their Seders and Bar Mitzvahs, and when I went off to college, I spent as much time asking biblical questions of the campus Rabbi as I did the protestant chaplain and Catholic priest. As a grad student, I was able to pour through the documents of the Church’s first three hundred years and discover the many intentional ties from Christianity to Judaism. I found two things that surprised me and helped me to answer a question I had always had – what relationship does Christian worship have with all that went on in the temple in Jerusalem?

The Eucharist as a Fulfillment of Passover

The Gospel of Luke contains an explosive statement quietly hidden in its description of the Last Supper: “I have earnestly desired to eat this Passover (το πασχα) with you before I suffer, for I tell you I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled (πληρωθῇ) in the kingdom of God (Luke 22:15-16)”[1] A few verses before, 7-8, το πασχα refers specifically to the lamb. The word πληρωθῇ “fulfilled” is frequently used in the synoptic Gospels to denote the events in Jesus’ life which matched what was written in the Old Testament. For example, in Luke 24:44, Jesus said, “… everything written about me in the law of Moses and the prophets and the psalms must be fulfilled.” What is explosive about Jesus’ words at the Last Supper is that it is not a scripture, but the Passover lamb itself which is going to be fulfilled. A detailed look at the full text reveals how this fulfillment happens.

Luke 22 7 Then came the day of Unleavened Bread, on which the passover lamb (το πασχα) had to be sacrificed. 8 So Jesus sent Peter and John, saying, “Go and prepare the passover (το πασχα) for us, that we may eat it.” 9 They said to him, “Where will you have us prepare it?”10 He said to them, “Behold, when you have entered the city, a man carrying a jar of water will meet you; follow him into the house which he enters, 11 and tell the householder, ‘The Teacher says to you, Where is the guest room, where I am to eatthe passover (το πασχα) with my disciples?’ 12 And he will show you a large upper room furnished; there make ready.” 13 And they went, and found it as he had told them; and they prepared the Passover (το πασχα). 14 And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the apostles with him. 15 And he said to them, “I have earnestly desired to eat this passover (τουτο το πασχα) with you before I suffer;16 for I tell you I shall not eat (φαγω) it until it is fulfilled (πληρωθη) in the kingdom of God.” 17 And he took a chalice, and when he had given thanks he said, “Take this, and divide it among yourselves; 18 for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes.” 19 And he took bread, and when he had given thanks he broke it and gave it to them, saying, “This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” 20 And likewise the chalice after supper, saying, “This chalice which is poured out for you is the new covenant (διαθηκη) in my blood. 21 But behold the hand of him who betrays me is with me on the table. 22 For the Son of man goes as it has been determined; but woe to that man by whom he is betrayed!” 23 And they began to question one another, which of them it was that would do this. 24 A dispute also arose among them, which of them was to be regarded as the greatest. 25 And he said to them, “The kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them; and those in authority over them are called benefactors. 26 But not so with you; rather let the greatest among you become as the youngest, and the leader as one who serves (διακονων). 27 For which is the greater, one who sits at table, or one who serves (διακονων? Is it not the one who sits at table? But I am among you as one who serves (διακονων). 28 “You are those who have continued with me in my trials; 29 as my Father appointed (διεθετο, covenanted) a kingdom for me, so do I appoint (διτιθεμαι, am covenanting) for you 30 that you may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom, and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel.

After declaring that the Passover lamb would be fulfilled (v. 16), Jesus pronounced something similar about the wine: “I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes” (v. 18) Why did Luke mention that confusing extra chalice just before the words of institution? Because it points to how the πασχαis going to be fulfilled - in the Eucharist. Immediately following that prediction, Jesus took the bread and explained the fulfillment: “this is my body, which is given for you. Do this is in remembrance (εἰς τὴν ἐμὴν ἀνάμνησιν) of me.”[2] Thus Jesus hearkened back to Exodus 12:14, where God told Moses that the day the angel saw the lamb’s blood on the doorposts should “be for you a memorial (μνημόσυνον) day… throughout your generations you shall observe it as an ordinance for ever.”[3] Jesus was not simply saying, “I’m worried you guys are going to forget me, so think about me every Passover when you eat lamb.” No, Jesus was telling them that what they memorialized about the first Passover as an ordinance forever, they were now memorializing about Him.

Jesus further explained this when He gave the apostles the chalice after supper. The Greek reads, Τοῦτο τὸ ποτήριον ἡ καινὴ διαθήκη ἐν τῷ αἵματί μου, τὸ ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν ἐκχυνόμενον, literally, “This the chalice, the new covenant in the blood of me, the for you being outpoured.” Note that the outpouring is in the present tense, not the future, and the chalice itself belongs to a new covenant. This shows that while the Mosaic Passover is being fulfilled in Jesus the lamb who is giving His blood to save them from death, the covenant does not remain the same as the Exodus covenant, but is new in some way.

There is no indication in Luke that Jesus did not eat or drink during supper. In fact, “after supper” (v. 20) is a poor translation. The word is a verb in the aorist infinitive, meaning “to have supped.” The chalice of the new covenant came “after they had supped”. Moreover, Luke’s prelude to the Last Supper includes “Go and prepare the Passover (πασχα) for us, that we may eat it (ἴνα φαγωμεν)” and “where am I to eat(φαγω) the passover (πασχα) with my disciples?” (v. 8, 11) The first thing Jesus said when he sat down was “I have earnestly desired to eat (φαγειν) this passover (τουτο το πασχα) with you before I suffer, for I tell you that I shall not eat (μη φαγω) it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God.” Since Jesus said before the meal that He would not eat or drink until He did so in the kingdom of God, and since He and His apostles did indeed sup (that is, drink wine and eat lamb, unleavened bread, and bitter herbs), it is clear that the Passover was fulfilled and the kingdom of God came during the meal.

Then Jesus discussed His betrayal and taught the disciples about servant leadership (διακονῶν). Afterwards, He explained, κἀγὼ διατίθεμαι ὑμῖν, καθὼς διέθετό μοι ὁ πατήρ μου βασιλείαν, ἵνα ἔσθητε καὶ πίνητε ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης μου ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ μου, καὶ καθήσεσθε ἐπὶ θρόνων τὰς δώδεκα φυλὰς κρίνοντες τοῦ Ἰσραήλ, that is, “I am covenanting to you the kingdom the Father covenanted to me so that you can be eating and drinking at my table in my kingdom and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel.”[4] Note that covenanting, eating, and drinking are present tense, indicating continuous action. It again seems clear that Jesus did not only mean that the fulfillment of the Passover would happen when he died as a sacrificial lamb on the Cross, but rather that the fulfillment of the Passover and the Kingdom and the new covenant were all beginning at the very supper He was eating with His disciples. Luke included many words to drive the Eucharistic point home: Jesus used the word “eat” twice in verses 15 and 16, “drink” in 18, Jesus ended His teaching on servant leadership using the metaphor of a waiter and the term “deacon” as a verb twice (verse 27); Jesus mentioned the verb “covenant” twice in verse 29, and then concluded in verse 30 with “so that you can be eating and drinking at my table in my kingdom.”[5]

The book of Acts makes it clear that Luke travelled with Paul, so it is no surprise that we find similar Eucharistic theology and wording in Paul’s epistles.[6] I Corinthians 5:7-8 states, “For Christ, our paschallamb, has been sacrificed. Let us, therefore, celebrate the festival…” (το πασχα ημων ετυθη χριστος ωστε εορταζωμεν). While the immediate context in First Corinthians allows for the possibility that St. Paul was simply using paschal imagery to encourage the Corinthians to get along, it is clear from other writings that early Christians took these verses literally. Around the year 190, western bishops decided to end the long-standing discrepancy of practice between the eastern and western churches, which the church historian Eusebius described this way: “The communities (παροικίαι) of the whole of Asia, relying on a tradition of great antiquity, thought that they ought to observe the fourteenth day of the moon – the day on which the Jews were ordered to sacrifice the lamb (ἐν ᾗ θύειν τὸ πρόβατον Ἰουδαίοις) – as the day for the festival of the Saviour’s Pascha (τοῦ σωτηρίου πάσχα ἑορτῆς παραφυλάττειν, lit. upon which of the feast of the Savior’s Pascha to keep) since they deemed it necessary at all costs to put an end to their fast on that day, no matter on what day of the week it should fall. But it was not the custom for the churches (ἐκκλησίαις)throughout all the rest of the world thus to celebrate (φυλαττούσαις) it, preserving as they did by an apostolic tradition the custom which has prevailed to this day, that it was not proper to end the fast on any other day than on the day of the resurrection of our Saviour... and on that day alone we should observe the end of the paschal fast.”[7] Eusebius rather tactfully suggested that there are two valid traditions, one from “great antiquity” celebrating Jesus’ Passover on the day of the Jewish Passover, and one from “apostolic tradition” celebrating the Saviour’s resurrection on Sunday. Eusebius quoted a letter of Bishop Polycrates of Ephesus, who went to great lengths to show that the origin of his eastern tradition came from the Apostles Philip and John through apostolic succession, and then stated “these all observed the fourteenth day for the Pascha according to the Gospel, in no way deviating therefrom, but following the rule of faith.”[8] Eusebius made no mention of a discrepancy of worship or of concerns that celebrating a Passover with the Jews was wrong. The only argument was about the day of the week and concern about emphasizing the Passion verses the Resurrection, and we can presume that both communities would have ended their paschal fast with the paschal feast of the Lord’s Supper – in the east because that was their focus, and in the west because even regular Sundays included a Eucharistic celebration.[9] The churches in both the east and the west came together to end a paschal fast, not to celebrate the Pascha of the saviour Moses, but the Pascha of the new Saviour, Jesus. They understood that the fulfillment which Jesus spoke of in Luke 22 had already happened, and they celebrated the paschal feast St. Paul wrote about in I Corinthians.

Indeed, Melito, Bishop of Sardis (c. 180), who is mentioned in Polycrates’ letter regarding the Pascha controversy, wrote about the Pascha in his Homily on the Passion. Melito wrote quite poetically, perhaps because his homily was part of the Pascha liturgy, but note carefully what he wrote: “For born as a son, and led forth as a lamb, sacrificed as a sheep… This is Jesus Christ.”[10] “O strange and ineffable mystery! The slaughter of the sheep was Israel’s salvation, and the death of the sheep was life for the people, and the blood averted the angel. Tell me angel, what turned you away? It is clear that you turned away seeing the mystery of the Lord in the sheep and the life of the Lord in the slaughter of the sheep and the type of the Lord in the death of the sheep… Listen to the meaning of the mystery. … When the thing comes about of which the sketch was a type, that which was to be, of which the type bore the likeness, then the type is destroyed, it has become useless, it yields up the image to what is truly real. What was once valuable becomes worthless, when what is of true value appears. … For indeed the Lord’s salvation and his truth were prefigured in the people, and the decrees of the Gospel were proclaimed in advance by the law. … So come all families of people, adulterated with sin, and receive forgiveness of sins. For I am your freedom. I am the Passover of salvation, I am the lamb slaughtered for you, I am your ransom, I am your life, I am your light, I am your salvation, I am your resurrection, I am your King.”[11] Mileto wrote that the Israelites were actually saved by the same one Lamb as the Christians![12] While the Jews around him celebrated their Passover meal speaking only of Exodus, Melito recounted the same salvation history and then kept going to its fulfillment in Jesus.[13] In the Eucharist that followed, how could his church think of anything but Jesus the Passover Lamb as they ate His body and drank His blood?

Justin Martyr, c. 150, likewise wrote, “the lamb which God enjoined to be sacrificed as the passover, was a type of Christ. … God does not permit the lamb of the passover to be sacrificed in any other place than where His name was named; knowing that the days will come, after the suffering of Christ, when even the place in Jerusalem shall be given over to your enemies, and all the offerings, in short, shall cease; and that lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb.”[14] Thus, for Justin, not only did Jesus’ death look like Passover, it was the reality to which the Passover ceremony pointed, and the Passover was instituted knowing that someday the lambs would no longer be able to be sacrificed in the destroyed temple, because then the only lamb would be Christ.

An interesting Paschal addition comes from Hippolytus of Rome, c. 215, Apostolic Tradition xxiii, who wrote about the ceremony after baptism and confirmation: “And then let the oblation be brought by the deacons to the bishop, and he shall eucharistize the bread into the representation [which the Greek calls the antitype] of the Flesh of Christ; the cup mixed with wine for the antitype, [which the Greek calls the likeness] of the Blood which was shed for all who have believed in Him; and milk and honey mingled together in fulfillment of the promise which as to the Fathers, wherein He said I will give you a land flowing with milk and honey; which Christ indeed gave, His Flesh, whereby they who believe are nourished like little children, making the bitterness of the heart sweet by the sweetness of His word.”[15] While this may seem strange to us, apparently in Hippolytus’ church, at least after baptisms, people drank from another cup in addition to the wine, which emphasized a bit of the promised land. One wonders if the Jews had a similar practice in their Passover meal, which has also been forgotten. But note that for Hippolytus the Eucharist, “His flesh whereby they who believe are nourished,” is the fulfillment of the promise of “milk and honey” to the Israelites. As with Justin and Melito, there is no break in the transition from the Israelite Passover to the Eucharist.[16]

The Didascalia, Syria, c. 200-250, chapter 21, commands the paschal fast end both on Sunday and on the fourteenth, indicating a redaction after a Quartodeciman beginning: “…from the tenth, the second day of the week, you shall fast for the pascha. You will be sustained by bread and salt and water only at the ninth hour until the fifth day of the week. On Friday however and the Sabbath fast completely, and do not taste anything. Gathering together at night keep vigil and watch the whole night in prayer, watching and reading the prophets and the Gospels, and with psalms… praying and interceding for those that have sinned, in confident expectation of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, until the third hour of the night which is after the Sabbath. Then offer up your offerings, and from then on eat and rejoice, and sing merrily. For the earnest of our resurrection, that is Christ, has risen. And this shall be an ordinance to you for ever, until the end of the ages. Whenever the fourteenth of the Pascha occurs, keep it then. For the month and the day do not fall at the same time every year, because it is variable. Therefore when the people is keeping the Pascha you should be fasting, and take care to perform your vigil within their unleavened [bread].”[17] Note that the shift from fasting to feasting happens when you “offer up your offerings,” probably a reference to the Eucharist, as I will show in the next section.[18]

The Eucharist as a Fulfillment of Malachi 1:11

(Refer to the Appendices as well as footnotes to find source material)

Seeing the Eucharist as the fulfillment of Passover is amazing, but early Christians saw the Eucharist as far more than that. They found in the tiny book of Malachi the key to understanding the Eucharist as the fulfillment of everything that went on in the Jerusalem temple.

As the last of the Old Testament prophets, Malachi ended his prophecy with “I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome day of the LORD comes” (Malachi 4:5). Jesus equated “John the Baptist” with “Elijah who is to come,”[19] so Jesus must have had Malachi’s prophecy in mind as He went about His work. Malachi’s prophecy was very focused on what was happening in the temple. Specifically, Malachi said that because the priests and Levites had profaned the altar, the sanctuary, and the covenant,“the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to His temple… He will purify the sons of Levi and refine them like gold and silver, till they present right offerings to the LORD. Then the offering of Judah and Jerusalem will be pleasing to the LORD as in the days of old and as in former years” (Malachi 3:1,3-4; cf.4:5). Jesus did indeed come to the temple as Lord, but Jesus did not spend His time in the temple teaching the priests and Levites how to offer sacrifices, nor did He spend His time teaching the people not to offer blind and lame animals, even though that was a huge concern in Malachi.[20] Jesus pronounced judgment on Jerusalem, then a few decades later Jerusalem was destroyed and there were no more sacrifices at all. What happened? Did Jesus totally fail in His mission? The early Church didn’t think so. In fact, early Christians saw themselves as the fulfillment of Malachi 1:11 - “For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations (ἔθνεσιν), and in every place incense (θυμίαμα) is offered (προσάγεται) to my name, and a pure (καθαρά) offering (θυσία); for my name is great among the nations, says the Lord of hosts.” The early Christians believed that Jesus created a new tribe of priests and Levites from all nations to offer a pure offering in the New Jerusalem, which filled the world.

St. Paul used the phrase “table of the Lord” from Malachi 1:7, 12 to refer to the table of the Lord’s Supper (I Cor. 11:21). In Romans, while not borrowing wording from Malachi LXX, Paul reflected the concepts of Malachi 1:11 when he spoke of his “priestly service (ἱερουργοῦντα) of the gospel of God, so that the offering of the Gentiles (ἡ προσφορὰ τῶν ἐθνῶν) may be acceptable (εὐπρόσδεκτος), sanctified (ἡγιασμένη) by the Holy Spirit.” The entire book of Hebrews is about how Jesus’ sacrifice of Himself as high priest fulfilled and replaced the Jewish temple cult. St. John’s Apocalypse is full of temple language, used to describe the multi-ethnic Church’s participation in the liturgy of heaven.

The Didache (c. 100), Justin Martyr (c. 150), Ireneaus of Lyons (c. 190), and Eusebius (c. 320) all directly quoted Malachi 1:11 to describe what Christian Eucharistic worship was and how it related to the temple cult of the Old Testament.[21] These are all early and reliable witnesses, reflecting the traditions of a wide geographic area. In addition, other early writers, while not referring to Malachi 1:11 directly, nonetheless made it clear that Christian worship had replaced the Jewish temple cult. A quick survey of temple terms used in reference to the Eucharist shows all of these in use: “Incense” (θυμιαμα), “Offer” (προσαγω, offerre), “Offer” (προσφερο), “Offering” (προσφορα), “Oblation” (oblationem), “Gifts” (δωρα), “Sacrifice” (θυσια, sacrificium), “Altar/sanctuary” (θυσιαστηριον, altar), “Minιstry” (λειτyργετον, λειτυργος), and “Priest, Priestly, Priesthood” (ῖερος, sacerdos, and variants). Both the biblical authors and the writers of the first three hundred years after Christ, scattered across Asia, Africa, and Europe, had no problem appropriating various temple cult terms to describe Christian worship, and especially the Eucharist.

For example, in First Corinthians 10:16-21, St. Paul wrote, “The bread which we break, is it not a participation (κοινωνια) in the body of Christ? … Consider the people of Israel; are not those who eat the sacrifices partners (κοινωνοι) in the altar? … I imply that what pagans sacrifice they offer to demons and not to God. I do not want you to be partners (κοινωνους) with demons…. You cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons.” Hebrews 13:10 used very similar language: “We have an altar from which those who serve the tent (Jewish priests) have no right to eat.” Peter wrote “… be yourselves built into a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.”[22] While Peter did not directly refer to the Eucharist, his words are significant because they show that he believed the Church replaced the temple, the Levitical priesthood, and their sacrifices.

Clement of Rome, c. 95, wrote - “We shall be guilty of no slight sin if we eject from the episcopate (επισκοπης) men who have offered the sacrifices (προσενεγκοντας τα δωρα) with innocence and holiness.”[23] About the same time, Ignatius of Antioch wrote to a deacon, “Do nothing without the bishops; for they are priests (ιερεις) and thou a servant (διακονος) of the priests (ιερεων). They baptize, offer sacrifice (ιερουργουσι) ordain (χειροτονουσι), and lay on hands (χειροθετουσι); but thou ministerest (διακονεις) to them, as the holy Stephen did at Jerusalem to James and the presbyters.”[24]

About 50 years later, Justin Martyr quoted Malachi 1:10-12 and then said that Malachi “speaks of those Gentiles, namely us, who in every place offer sacrifices (προσφερομενων θυσιων) to Him, i.e., the bread of the Eucharist, and also the cup of the Eucharist (τουτεστι του ἄρτου της ευχαριστιας και τον ποτηριου ομιως εθχαριστιας), affirming both that we glorify His name, and that you [Jews] profane [it].”[25]

Thus the Eucharist not only fulfilled the Passover sacrifice, but the entire Old Testament sacrificial system. When I moved into a Jewish neighborhood at the age of nine, I had far more in common with my neighbors than I realized! Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed and has made us priests in His kingdom. Let us offer to God a pure sacrifice and celebrate the feast as we eat His body and drink His blood of the wonderful new covenant.[26]

[1] Luke 22:15-16. Bible texts from RSVCE, the Novum Testamentum Graece by Eberhard Nestle, Erwin, Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo Matini, Bruce Metzger, Allen Wikgren, (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1986), and The NIV Triglot Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: The Zondervan Corporation, 1981).

[2] Luke 22:19

[3] ἀνάμνησιν and μνημόσυνον are from a whole series of words about remembering: ἀναμιμνήσκω,μνεία, μνῆμα, μνημεῖον, μνήμη, μνημονεύω.

[4] Luke 22:29-30, my translation.

[5] Note that the Gospel of John devotes great space to the meal and Jesus’ teaching of the future leaders of the Church, even without the Words of Institution.

[6] Luke and Paul’s words of institution are very similar in the Greek (cf. I Cor. 11:23-26)

[7] Eusebius Historia Ecclesiastica, V in Stevenson 155.

[8] Eusebius, HE, V.24.2-6 in Stevenson, 155.

[9] Cf. Didache, 14.1; Justin First Apology 67; Decrees of Fabian.

[10] Quasten, 244.

[11] Stewart-Sykes, 45, 46, 47, 65-66

[12] Melito follows St. Paul, who said “our fathers were all… baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea, and all ate the same supernatural food and all drank the same supernatural drink. For they drank from the supernatural Rock which followed them, and the Rock was Christ.” (I Cor. 10:1-4)

[13] Quasten, 243 - “The story of the Exodus and especially of the institution of the Passover is paraphrased and then expounded as a type of the redemptive work of Christ. Both are called mysteria in the sense of actions having a supernatural effect beyond their historical setting. Exodus and Passover became the type of what followed when Jesus died and rose again. Jesus’ passion and death insure the Christian’s escape from sin and mortality just as the slaughtered Passover Lamb secured the flight of the Hebrews

[14] Dialogue with Trypho, 40; Roberts, New Advent.com

[15] Dix 40-41.

[16] Origen of Alexandria, c. 240, wrote “Some object that we, too have the custom of observing certain days – for example, the Lord’s day… the Passover… [However] he who considers that ‘Christ, our paschal lamb, has been sacrificed’ (I Cor. 5:7) knows that is it his duty to keep the feast by eating the flesh of the Word and so he never ceases to keep the paschal feast. For pascha means Passover…” (Against Celsus, 8:22, quoted in Brant Pitre, Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist, 176.)

[17] Syrian Didascalia, 21, in Stewart-Sykes, 93-94.

[18] For more about the Eucharist as Passover, cf. Brant Pitre, Jesus and the Last Supper (Eerdmans, 2005), Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist: Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper (Image 2011).

[19] Mt. 11:12-14. All three synoptic Gospels affirm that this prophecy was fulfilled in John the Baptist, though John himself denied it (Mt. 17:12, Mark 9:13, Luke 1:17, John 1:21).

[20] Cf. Malachi 1:8,13.

[21] Didache XIV.1-3; Justin Martyr, c. 150, Dialogue with Trypho, 41, 117; Irenaeus Against Heresies, IV, 17.5-6; Eusebius, Proof of the Gospel, 1.10.

[22] I Peter 2:5

[23] I Clement 44.4, Richardson, 64; Holmes, 104.

[24] Ignatius to Hero III; Roberts, 113; Migne vol. 5, 913.

[25] Dialogue with Trypho, 41 (Roberts, New Advent.com, Migne vol. 6 p. 564).

[26] Catechism of the Catholic Church 1362-1366 – “The Eucharist is the memorial of Christ's Passover, the making present and the sacramental offering of his unique sacrifice, in the liturgy of the Church which is his Body. In all the Eucharistic Prayers we find after the words of institution a prayer called the anamnesis or memorial. In the sense of Sacred Scripture the memorial is not merely the recollection of past events but the proclamation of the mighty works wrought by God for men. In the liturgical celebration of these events, they become in a certain way present and real. This is how Israel understands its liberation from Egypt: every time Passover is celebrated, the Exodus events are made present to the memory of believers so that they may conform their lives to them. In the New Testament, the memorial takes on new meaning. When the Church celebrates the Eucharist, she commemorates Christ's Passover, and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present. ‘As often as the sacrifice of the Cross by which 'Christ our Pasch has been sacrificed' is celebrated on the altar, the work of our redemption is carried out.’ Because it is the memorial of Christ's Passover, the Eucharist is also a sacrifice. The sacrificial character of the Eucharist is manifested in the very words of institution: "This is my body which is given for you’ and ‘This cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood.’ In the Eucharist Christ gives us the very body which he gave up for us on the cross, the very blood which he ‘poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.’ The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of the cross, because it is its memorial and because it applies its fruit.”

Appendix 1 – Summary of Temple Language

“Incense” (θυμιαμα)

Malachi 1:11 – “in every place incense is offered to my name…”

Revelation 5:8, 8:3-4, all in reference to “the prayers of the saints”

Irenaeus (c. 190) Against Heresies, IV, 17.6 - “the Church makes offerings through Jesus Christ, …And in every place incense (incensum) is offered to My name [Malachi]

… Now John, in the Apocalypse, declares that the incense (incensa) is the prayers of the saints.”

Eusebius (c. 320) Proof of the Gospel 1.10. “We sacrifice and offer incense: On the one

hand when we celebrate the Memorial of His great Sacrifice…”

“Offer” (προσαγω, offerre)

Malachi 1:11 - “incense is offered to my name and a pure offering”

I Peter 3:18 – unclear whether Christ will “bring” us or “offer” us to God

Irenaeus of Lyons (France, c. 190) Against the Heresies, IV 17:5 – “giving directions to

His disciples to offer (offerre) to God the first-fruits of His own, created things… He took that created thing, bread, and gave thanks, and said, This is my body…”

“Offer” (προσφερο)

Matthew 5:23-24 “if you are offering your gift at the altar” – unclear whether Jewish only

or also Christian; Didache applies to Christian

Clement of Rome (c. 95), I Clement 44:4 – bishops “who have offered (προσενεγκοντας)

the sacrifices”

Justin Martyr (Rome, c. 150) Dialogue with Trypho 41 - “who in every place offer

(προσφερομενων) sacrifices to Him, i.e., the bread of the Eucharist, and also the cup of the Eucharist…”

Hippolytus (Rome, c. 215) I.iv.11 and I.iii.5 – “offer (προσφερειν) thee the

gifts” …“offering (προσφιροντα) to thee an odour of sweet savour”. …” – iv.11-12 -“we offer (προσφερόμεν) to Thee the bread and the cup making Eucharist”

“Offering” (προσφορα)

Romans 15:16 – “the offering of the Gentiles” related to praise; unclear as to whether it is

Eucharistic or not

Ephesians 5:2 – “Christ gave Himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God.”

Hebrews 10:10 – “we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus

Christ once for all.”

Hebrews 10:14 – “For by a single offering He [Christ] has perfected for all time those

who are sanctified.”

Hebrews 10:18 – “where there is forgiveness of these [sins] there is no longer any

offering for sin.”

Clement of Rome (c. 95) 36:1-2 (uses the plural) “Jesus Christ, the high priest of our

offerings (των προσφορων ημων)”

“Oblation” (oblationem)

Hippolytus (Rome, c. 215) I.iv.11 – “we pray Thee that thou wouldest send Thy Holy

Spirit upon the oblation (Greek text lost, Latin oblationem) of Thy holy Church”

Descalia (Syria, c. 200-250), 9 - “the oblations which are offered through the bishops to

the Lord God. For they are your high priests”

Decrees of Fabian (Rome, c. 250) “on each Lord’s day the oblation of the altar should be

made by men and women in bread and wine”

“Gifts” (δωρα)

New Testament references are all about the old covenant, but use “gift” or “gifts”

together with “altar” and “sacrifice” (Matthew 5:23-24, Matthew 23:18-19, Hebrews 5:1, 8:3-4, 9:9,11:4)

Clement of Rome (c. 95) 44.4 – bishops “who have offered the sacrifices (τα δωρα)”

Hippolytus (Rome, c. 215) iii.5 bishop “offer thee the gifts (τα δωρα) of thy holy church”

“Sacrifice” (θυσια, sacrificium)

Malachi 1:11 “in every place… a pure offering (θυσια)”

Romans 12:1 – “present your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God”

I Corinthians 10:18 – a reference to the Jews in direct comparison to Christian

communion - “Are not those who eat the sacrifices partners in the altar?”

Ephesians 5:2 – “Christ… gave Himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to

God.”

Philippians 2:17 – “Even if I am to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of

your faith…” – unclear reference

Philippians 4:18 – non-Eucharistic money – “the gifts you sent, a fragrant offering, a

sacrifice acceptable and pleasing to God.”

Hebrews, referring to Jewish – 5:1, 7:27, 8:3, 9:9, 10:1,5,8,11; 11:4

Hebrews 9:23,25, 10:12 refer to Christ offering Himself as a sacrifice in the heavenly

temple/Cross

Hebrews 10:26 – “… if we sin deliberately after receiving the knowledge of the truth,

there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins” (possible Eucharistic reference)

Hebrews 13:15 – “Jesus… suffered… in order to sanctify the people through His own

blood. … Through Him then let us continually offer up a sacrifice of praise to God, that is, the fruit of lips that acknowledge His name.” (probable Eucharistic reference)

Hebrews 13:16 – “Do not neglect to do good and to share what you have, for such

sacrifices are pleasing to God.” (immediately follows previous verse and may refer to bringing food for the poor to the Eucharistic assembly)

I Peter 2:5 – “… be yourselves built into a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to

offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.”

Didache (c. 100) XIV.1-3 - “on the Lord’s day of the Lord come together and break

bread and give thanks, having first confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be pure”

Justin Martyr (Rome, c. 150) Dialogue with Trypho 41 - Malachi “then speaks of

those Gentiles, namely us, who in every place offer sacrifices to Him, i.e., the bread of the Eucharist, and also the cup of the Eucharist” cf. 117

Irenaeus of Lyons (France, c. 190) Against the Heresies IV 17.5 - sacrifice in Malachi

Fabian of Rome (c. 250) Decrees of Fabian – “on each Lord’s day the oblation of the

altar should be made by men and women in bread and wine, in order that by means of these sacrifices they may be released from the burden of their sins… The sacrifice is not to be accepted from the hand of a priest who is not competent…”

Cyprian of Carthage (N. Africa, c. 255) Epistle LXIV.1 – Concerning a bishop who

became a pagan and then tried to return - “how does he think that his hand can be transferred to the sacrifice (sacrificium) of God?”

Eusebius (Rome, c. 320) Proof of the Gospel 1.10 – “we sacrifice and offer incense: On

the one hand when we celebrate the Memorial of His great Sacrifice according to the Mysteries He delivered to us, and bring to God the Eucharist…”

“Altar/sanctuary” (θυσιαστηριον, altar)

Matthew 5:23-24 “if you are offering your gift at the altar” unclear whether Christian as

well as Jewish; Didache applies to Eucharistic assembly

I Corinthians 9:13 –“Do you not know that those who are employed in the temple service

get their food from the temple, and those who serve at the altar share in the sacrificial offerings?” (Likely reference to Jewish priests, but possibly to bishops)

Hebrews 7:13 – Jewish altar

Hebrews 13:10 – “We have an altar from which those who serve the tent have no right to

eat.” (Probably Eucharistic)

Revelation 6:9 – “I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain for the word

of God and for the witness they had borne.” (A reference to the heavenly altar, reflected in the memorial altars of the early Church, which contained relics of the martyrs; unknown whether the practice predated Rev. 6:9 or imitated it.)

Revelation 8:3 – “…another angel…was given much incense to mingle with the prayers

of all the saints upon the golden altar before the throne…” Altar is in heaven, but may represent Eucharistic assembly on earth.

Revelation 8:5, 9:13, 11:1, 14:18, 16:7 all seem to refer to this same altar, making the

altar present for the central 11 of Revelation’s 22 chapters.

Epistles of Ignatius (Antioch, c. 100) to the Ephesians (5:2) - “If anyone is not inside the

sanctuary (θυσιαστηριου), he lacks God’s bread.”

Ignatius to the Trallians 7:2 - “Inside the sanctuary (θυσιαστηριου) a man is pure;

outside he is impure. That means: whoever does anything without bishop, presbytery, and deacons…”

Ignatius to the Philadelphians 4- “there is one flesh of our Lord, Jesus Christ, and one cup

of his blood that makes us one, and one altar (θυσιαστηριον), just as there is one bishop”

Cyprian of Carthage (N. Africa, c. 255) LXIV.1 - “to approach to the altar of God (ad

altare Dei)”

Decrees of Fabian (Rome, c. 250) – “We decree that on each Lord’s day the oblation of

the altar should be made by men and women in bread and wine

“Minιstry” (λειτyργετον, λειτυργος)

Romans 15:16 – “… to be a minister of Christ Jesus to the gentiles in the priestly service

of the gospel of God, so that the offering of the Gentiles may be acceptable”

Hebrews 8:2 – Jesus, as high priest, is “a minister in the sanctuary and the true tent”

Didache (c. 100) XV.1 says bishops have the ministry of prophets and teachers

Hippolytus (Rome, c. 215) I.iii.3 uses this term for the bishop

“Priest, Priestly, Priesthood” (ῖερος, sacerdos, and variants)

The Gospels and Acts use ῖερος and ἀρχιερεύς to denote Jewish priests numerous times,

but never for Christian leaders; Hebrews does this as well, but uses the terms for Melchizedek and Jesus. Ι Peter and Revelation speak of all Christians as priests.

I Peter 2:5 – “…be yourselves built into a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer

spiritual sacrifices…”

I Peter 2:9 – “But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation…”

Hebrews - Jesus is a priest – 5:6; 7:15,17, 21; 8:4; 10:21; Jesus is high priest- 2:17, 3:1,

4:14,15, 5:5,10; 6:20; 7:26; 8:1; 9:11

Revelation 1:6 – Jesus “…made us a kingdom, priests to His God and Father…”

Revelation 5:9-10 – The twenty-four elders sang “by your blood you ransomed men for

God from every tribe and tongue and people and nation, and have made them a kingdom and priests to our God and they shall reign on earth.”

Revelation 20:6 – Martyrs “shall be priests of God and of Christ, and they shall reign

with Him a thousand years.”

Ignatius of Antioch (c. 100) to Hero, a deacon - “Do nothing without the bishops; for

they are priests (ιερεις) and thou a servant of the priests (ιερεων).”

Tertullian of Carthage (c. 200) On Batpism XVII – “the chief priest (summus sacerdos)

who is the bishop (qui est episcopus)”

Tertullian, De Praescriptione Haereticorum 29 - heretics claim that in the true church

“so many priestly (sacerdotia) functions, so many ministries, were wrongly executed”

Tertullian, De Praescriptione Haereticorum 41 – For even on laymen do they [the

heretics] impose the functions of priesthood. (Nam et laicis sacerdotalia munera iniungunt).”

Polycrates of Ephesus (c. 200) compares bishop ιερος to Jewish ιερος

Hippolytus (Rome, c. 215) I.iv.11 (of all community or of bishop with presbyters) “we

offer to Thee the bread and the cup making eucharist to Thee because Thou hast made us worthy to stand before Thee and minster-as-preists (ἱερατεύειν) to Thee”

Hippolytus I.iii.2 - “thy church … predestinating from the beginning the righteous race of

Abraham. And making them princes and priests (ἴερεις),

Hippolytus I.iii.5-6 – “bishop, [to feed thy holy flock] and to serve as thy high priest

(αρχιερατευειν)”

Hippolytus I.iv.9 – “deacon … is not ordained for a priesthood (sacerdotio), but for

service of the bishop”

Didascalia (c. 200-250) 8,9 – O bishops, You then are to your people priests and

prophets, and princes and leaders and kings, and mediators between God and His faithful… the bishops … are your high priests”

Decrees of Fabian, (Rome, c. 250) – “The sacrifice is not to be accepted from the hand of

a priest who is not competent”

Cyprian of Carthage (c. 255) Epistle LXV.1 – the bishop has priestly station and power

Cyprian of Carthage Epistle LXIV.1-2 – mentions the priesthood and the bishop replaces

the Jewish priesthood

Appendix 2 – Full Quotations from the First Three Centuries

Malachi 1:11 states, “For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations (ἔθνεσιν) , and in every place incense (θυμίαμα2368) is offered (προσάγεται 4317) to my name, and a pure (καθαρά2513) offering (θυσία 2378); for my name is great among the nations, says the Lord of hosts.”

Acts 1:17, 25 – “For he [Judas] was numbered among us, and was allotted his share in this ministry (τῆς διακονίας ταύτης). … to take the place in this ministry (and apostleship from which Judas turned aside,τῆς διακονίας ταύτης καὶ ἀποστολῆς),

Romans 15:15-16 – “But on some points I have written to you very boldly by way of reminder, because of the grace given me by God… to be a minister (λειτουργὸν) of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles in the priestly service (ἱερουργοῦντα) of the gospel of God, so that the offering of the Gentiles (ἡ προσφορὰ τῶν ἐθνῶν) may be acceptable (εὐπρόσδεκτος), sanctified (ἡγιασμένη) by the Holy Spirit.” This comes after several quotes from the Old Testament which show that God sent Christ to enable the Gentiles to joyfully and hopefully praise the Lord (Psalm 18:49, 2 Samuel 22:50, Deuteronomy 32:43, Psalm 117:1, Isaiah 11:10). None of the passages cited are sacrificial, and Paul may have been speaking metaphorically to describe that he has been making the gentiles an offering to God. Nonetheless, the verse also may mean that Paul is helping the gentiles to offer pure offerings, though that argument would be much stronger if he had used the plural “offerings.” On the other hand, it is possible he is translating from the Hebrew version of Malachi 1:11, where the offering is singular.

Clement of Rome, c. 95, to the church of Corinth, states, “This is the way, dear friends, in which we found our salvation, Jesus Christ, the high priest (τον αρχιερεα) of our offerings (των προσφορων ημων) the protector and helper of our weakness. Through him we fix our gaze on the heights of heaven.”[1] “We shall be guilty of no slight sin if we eject from the episcopate (επισκοπης) men who have offered the sacrifices (προσενεγκοντας τα δωρα) with innocence and holiness.”[2]

Didache (c. 100, Stevenson 13) XIV.1-3 – “And on the Lord’s day of the Lord come together and break bread and give thanks, having first confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be pure (καθαρὰ ἡ θυσία ὑμῶν). But whoso hath a dispute with his fellow, let him not come together with you, until they be reconciled, that your sacrifice (ἡ θυσία ὑμῶν) be not polluted κοινωθῇ. For this is that which was spoken of by the Lord. In every place and time offer me a pure sacrifice (προσφέρειν μοι θυσίαν καθαράν): for I am a great King, saith the Lord, and my name is wonderful among the Gentiles.” (Malachi 1:10, 14)

Didache (c. 100) (Stevenson 11)– seems to be addressed to brand new leaders – IX 1.2-4 – “And concerning the Eucharist, give thanks in this manner. First concerning the cup. We thank thee, our Father, for the holy vine of David, thy son, which thou didst make known to us through Jesus thy son. Glory be to thee for ever. And concerning the broken bread. We thank thee, our Father for the life and knowledge which thou didst make known to us through Jesus, thy son. Glory be to thee for ever. As this bread that is broken was scattered upon the mountains, and gathered together, and became one, so let thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into thy Kingdom: for thine is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ for ever.” There are more prayers of thanksgiving for after the meal. XI.7 - “But suffer the prophets to give thanks as much as they will.”[3]

Didache (c 100 , Stevenson 13) XV.1 – “Elect Χειροτονησατε ουν εαυτοις

therefore for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord… for they also minister unto you the ministry(λειτουργουσι και αυτοι την λειτουργιαν) of the prophets and teachers… these are they which are honoured of you with the prophets an teachers.”

Ignatius of Antioch, c. 100, to the Ephsians 5:2, regarding those who don’t gather with the bishop: “Make no mistake about it. If anyone is not inside the sanctuary (θυσιαστηριου), he lacks God’s bread (του ἄρτου του θεου). And if the prayer of one or two has great avail, how much more that of the bishop and the total church.[4]

Ignatius to the Trallians 7:2, regarding heretical teachers – “Inside the sanctuary (θυσιαστηριου) a man is pure; outside he is impure. That means: whoever does anything without bishop, presbytery, and deacons does not have a clear conscience.”[5]

Ignatius to Hero [deacon], Antioch, c. 100, III, - “Do nothing without the bishops; for they are priests (ιερεις) and thou a servant (διακονος) of the priests (ιερεων). They baptize, offer sacrifice (ιερουργουσι) ordain (χειροτονουσι), and lay on hands (χειροθετουσι); but thou ministerest (διακονεις) to them, as the holy Stephen did at Jerusalem to James and the presbyters.”[6]

Ignatius to the Philadelphians 4 – “Be careful, then, to observe (χρησθαι)

a single Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord, Jesus Christ, and one cup of his blood that makes us one, and one altar (θυσιαστηριον), just as there is one bishop along with the presbytery and the deacons…”[7] The term “altar” is translated as “sanctuary” where it is clear that is the meaning (Eph. 5:2, Tral 7:2)

Ignatius, Magnesians. 6,1 (Quasten 67) – “I exhort you to strive to do all things in harmony with God: the bishop is to preside (προκαθημενου) in the place of God, while the presbyters are to function as the council of the Apostles, and the deacons, who are most dear to me, are entrusted with the ministry (διακονιαν) of Jesus Christ.”

Ignatius, Smyrn, 8,1 (Quasten 68) “Let no one do anything touching the Church apart from the bishop. Let that celebration of the Eucharist be considered valid which is held under the bishop or anyone to whom he has committed it.[8] Without the bishop’s supervision, no baptisms or love feasts are permitted.”[9]

Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans VIII.1 – “Follow, all of you, the bishop… and follow the presbytery as the apostles. Moreover, reverence the deacons as the commandment of God…. Let that Eucharist be considered valid which is under the bishop or him to whom he commits it…”[10]. VIII.2 – “It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize, or to hold a love-feast.”[11]

Papias (c. 130) Explanations of the sayings of the Lord, in Eusebius Hist eccles 3, 39,3-4 in Quasten 83) – “And again if ever anyone came who had been a follower of the presbyters I inquired into the words of the presbyters, what Andrew or Peter or Philip or Tomas or James or John or Matthew or any other of the Lord’s disciples and what Aristion and the presbyter John, the disciples of the Lord, were saying.”

Justin Martyr, c. 150, Dialogue with Trypho, 41 (Roberts, New Advent, Migne vo. 6 p. 564)– “And the offering of fine flour, sirs, which was prescribed to be presented on behalf of those purified from leprosy, was a type of the bread of the Eucharist, the celebration of which our Lord Jesus Christ prescribed, in remembrance of the suffering which He endured on behalf of those who are purified in soul from all iniquity, in order that we may at the same time thank God for having created the world, with all things therein, for the sake of man, and for delivering us from the evil in which we were, and for utterly overthrowing principalities and powers by Him who suffered according to His will. Hence God speaks by the mouth of Malachi, one of the twelve [prophets], as I said before, about the sacrifices (θυσιας) at that time presented by you: 'I have no pleasure in you, says the Lord; and I will not accept your sacrifices at your hands: for, from the rising of the sun unto the going down of the same, My name has been glorified among the Gentiles, and in every place incense (θυμιαμα) is offered (προσφερεται) to My name, and a pure offering (θυσιακαθαρα): for My name is great among the Gentiles, says the Lord: but you profane it.' (Malachi 1:10-12) [So] He then speaks of those Gentiles, namely us, who in every place offer sacrifices (προσφερομενων θυσιων) to Him, i.e., the bread of the Eucharist, and also the cup of the Eucharist (τουτεστι του ἄρτου της ευχαριστιας και τον ποτηριου ομιως ευχαριστιας), affirming both that we glorify His name, and that you profane [it]. The command of circumcision, again, bidding [them] always circumcise the children on the eighth day, was a type of the truecircumcision, by which we are circumcised from deceit and iniquity through Him who rose from the dead on the first day after the Sabbath, [namely through] our Lord Jesus Christ. For the first day after the Sabbath, remaining the first of all the days, is called, however, the eighth, according to the number of all the days of the cycle, and [yet] remains the first.”

Justin Martyr, c. 150, Dialogue with Trypho, 117 (Roberts, New Advent– Migne, vol. 6, 745) “Accordingly, God, anticipating all the sacrifices (θυσιας) which we offer through this name, and which Jesus the Christ enjoined us to offer (ασ παρεδωκεν γινεσαι, i.e., in the Eucharist of the bread and the cup, and which are presented (γινομενας) by Christians in all places throughout the world, bears witness that they are well-pleasing to Him. But He utterly rejects those presented by you and by those priests of yours, saying, 'And I will not accept your sacrifices (θυσιας) at your hands; for from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is glorified among the Gentiles (He says); but you profane it.' Malachi (1:10-12). Yet even now, in your love of contention, you assert that God does not accept the sacrifices of those who dwelt then in Jerusalem, and were called Israelites; but says that He is pleased with the prayers of the individuals of that nation then dispersed, and calls their prayers sacrifices. Now, that prayers (ευχαι) and giving of thanks (ευχαριστιαι), when offered by worthy men, are the only perfect and well-pleasing sacrifices (θυσιαι) to God, I also admit. For such alone Christians have undertaken to offer (παρελαδον ποιειν), and in the remembrance effected by their solid and liquid food (αναμνησει δε της τροφης…), whereby the suffering of the Son of God which He endured is brought to mind (εν η και του παθους ο πεπουθε δι αυτους ο Υιος του θεου μεμνηται), whose name the high priests of your nation and your teachers have caused to be profaned and blasphemed over all the earth. But these filthy garments, which have been put by you on all who have become Christians by the name of Jesus, God shows shall be taken away from us, when He shall raise all men from the dead, and appoint some to be incorruptible, immortal, and free from sorrow in the everlasting and imperishable kingdom; but shall send others away to the everlasting punishment of fire. But as to you and your teachers deceiving yourselves when you interpret what the Scripture says as referring to those of your nation then in dispersion, and maintain that their prayers and sacrifices offered in every place are pure and well-pleasing, learn that you are speaking falsely, and trying by all means to cheat yourselves: for, first of all, not even now does your nation extend from the rising to the setting of the sun, but there are nations among which none of your race ever dwelt. For there is not one single race of men, whether barbarians, or Greeks, or whatever they may be called, nomads, or vagrants, or herdsmen living in tents, among whom prayers and giving of thanks are not offered through the name of the crucified Jesus. And then, as the Scriptures show, at the time when Malachi wrote this, your dispersion over all the earth, which now exists, had not taken place.”

Justin (c. 160), Apology 1.65 (Stevenson, 71-72)– “At the end of the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking the, offers up praise and glory to the Father of universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and gives thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at his hands. When he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their joyful assent by saying Amen….And when the president has given thanks… those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced and to those who are absent they carry away a portion.”

Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 190, Against Heresies, IV, 17.5-6 -5 (Migne vol. 7 1023-1024). Again, giving directions to His disciples to offer (offerre) to God the first-fruits of His own, created things— not as if He stood in need of them, but that they might be themselves neither unfruitful nor ungrateful— He took that created thing, bread, and gave thanks (et gratius egit), and said, This is My body. Matthew 26:26, etc. And the cup likewise, which is part of that creation to which we belong, He confessed to be His blood, and taught the new oblation (oblationem) of the new covenant; which the Church receiving from the apostles, offers (offert) to God throughout all the world, to Him who gives us as the means of subsistence the first-fruits of His own gifts in the New Testament, concerning which Malachi, among the twelve prophets, thus spoke beforehand: I have no pleasure in you, says the Lord Omnipotent, and I will not accept sacrifice (sacrificium) at your hands. For from the rising of the sun, unto the going down [of the same], My name is glorified among the Gentiles, and in every place incense (incensum) is offered (offertur) to My name, and a pure sacrifice (sacrificium purum); for great is My name among the Gentiles, says the Lord Omnipotent; Malachi 1:10-11 — indicating in the plainest manner, by these words, that the former people [the Jews] shall indeed cease to make (offerre) offerings to God, but that in every place sacrifice (sacrificium) shall be offered (offertur) to Him, and that a pure one (purum); and His name is glorified among the Gentiles. 6. But what other name is there which is glorified among the Gentiles than that of our Lord, by whom the Father is glorified, and man also? And because it is [the name] of His own Son, who was made man by Him, He calls it His own. Just as a king, if he himself paints a likeness of his son, is right in calling this likeness his own, for both these reasons, because it is [the likeness] of his son, and because it is his own production; so also does the Father confess the name of Jesus Christ, which is throughout all the world glorified in the Church, to be His own, both because it is that of His Son, and because He who thus describes it gave Him for the salvation of men. Since, therefore, the name of the Son belongs to the Father, and since in the omnipotent God the Church makes (offert) offerings through Jesus Christ, He says well on both these grounds, And in every place incense (incensum) is offered (offertur) to My name, and a pure sacrifice (sacrificium purum). Now John, in the Apocalypse, declares that the incense (incensa) is the prayers (orations) of the saints.[12]

Polycrates of Ephesus, c. 200, as quoted by Eusebius of Caesarea, c. 190, Historia Ecclesiastica, V.24.3-6 (Stevenson 155) – “John too, he who leant back on the Lord’s breast, who was a priest, wearing the sacerdotal plate (ἐγενήθη ἱερεὺς τὸ πέταλον πεφορεκὼς), both martyr and teacher.” V.24.4-5 - Then he mentions a number of men described as “bishop and martyr” (ἐπίσκοπος καὶ μάρτυς). This makes clear the distinction between the Jewish priesthood and the terminology for Christian leaders.

The Didascalia, Syria, c. 200-250, chapter 21, includes this command for the end of the paschal fast: “Gathering together at night keep vigil and watch the whole night in prayer, watching and reading the prophets and the Gospels, and with psalms… praying and interceding for those that have sinned, in confident expectation of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, until the third hour of the night which is after the Sabbath. Then offer up your offerings, and from then on eat and rejoice, and sing merrily.”[13]

Didascalia, 8 –“You also then to-day, O bishops, are priests to your people, and the Levites who minister to the tabernacle of God, the holy Catholic Church, who stand continually before the Lord God. You then are to your people priests and prophets, and princes and leaders and kings, and mediators between God and His faithful…” 9 “you are the Catholic Church, the holy and perfect, a royal priesthood,…instead of the sacrifices which then were, offer now prayers and petitions and thanksgivings. Then were first fruits and tithes and part-offerings and gifts; but to-day the oblations which are offered through the bishops to the Lord God. For they are your high priests [cf. Did 13.3]; but the priests and Levites now are the presbyters and deacons, and the orphans and widows:? but the Levite and high priest is the bishop.” R. Hugh Connolly, Didascalia Apostolorum. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929.

Tertullian (c. 200), De Praescriptione Haereticorum, 29 (Stevenson ?) –Tertullian claims that heretics believe that until they came to preach the truth, “so many thousands were wrongly baptized…so many priestly functions, so many ministries, were wrongly executed (tot sacerdotia, tot ministeria perperam functa)”

Tertullian (c. 200), De Praescriptione Haereticorum, 41 (Stevenson 190), regarding heretics – “To-day one man is their bishop (episcopus), to-morrow another; to-day he is a deacon (diaconus) who to-morrow is a reader (lector); to-day he is a presbyter (presbyter) who to-morrow is a layman (laicus). For even on laymen do they impose the functions of priesthood. (Nam et laicis sacerdotalia munera iniungunt).”

Tertullian (c. 200), De Praescriptione Haereticorum, 36 (Stevenson 182-183) – “… apostolic churches (ecclesias apostolicas), in which the very thrones (cathedrae) of the apostles still have jurisdiction (praesident) in their own places… Corinth… Philippi… Ephesus…Rome… Let us see what she has learned, what taught, what fellowship (contesseratis) has had with churches in Africa also! … her faith… she… feeds with the Eucharist (eucharistia pascit)…”

Tertullian (c. 200), On the Soldier’s Crown de corona militis, 3, 4 (Stevenson 190-191)– “When we are going to enter the water… under the hand of the president (antistitis) …We take also, in meetings before daybreak, and from the hand of none but the presidents (praesidentium), the sacrament of the Eucharist (Eucharistiae sacramentum)

Tertullian, c. 205, On Baptism, tr. Rev. S. Thelwall, XVII – “Of giving it [baptism], the chief priest (summus sacerdos) (who is the bishop) (qui est episcopus) has the right: in the next place, the presbyters (presbyteri) and deacons (diaconi), yet not without the bishop’s authority, on account of the honour of the Church, which being preserved, peace is preserved. Beside these, even laymen (laicis) have the right; for what is equally received can be equally given. Unless bishops, or priests, or deacons, be on the spot, other disciples are called i.e. to the work.”[14]

Tertullian of Carthage (N. Africa) c. 230, On Prayer, 19 – “Similarly, too, touching the days of Stations, most think that they must not be present at the sacrificial prayers (sacrificiorum orationibus), on the ground that the Station must be dissolved by reception of the Lord’s Body. Does, then, the Eucharist cancel a service devoted to God, or bind it more to God? Will not your Station be more solemn if you have withal stood at God’s altar (Latin has multiple version)?” (Roberts, vol. III)

Hippolytus of Rome, c. 215, The Apostolic Tradition, I.iv.11-12 after words of institution, “Doing therefore the ‘anamnesis’ of His death and resurrection we offer προσφερόμεν to Thee the bread and the cup making eucharist to Thee because Thou hast made us worthy to stand before Thee and minster-as-preists (ἱερατεύειν) to Thee. And we pray Thee that thou wouldest send Thy Holy Spirit upon the oblation (Greek text lost, Latin oblationem) of Thy holy Chuch Thou wouldest grant to all who partake to be united that they may be fulfilled with the Holy Spirit for the confirmation of faith in truth.”[15] The concept of offering is unmistakable, but note that it is the bread and cup that are offered although the words of institution have already been said; the epiclesis that follows has nothing to do with changing the gifts into the Body and Blood. Clearly the debate about the moment of change has not yet occurred.

Hippolytus of Rome, c. 215, The Apostolic Tradition, I.iv.11-12, after words of institution, “Doing therefore the ‘anamnesis’ of His death and resurrection we offer προσφερόμεν to Thee the bread and the cup making eucharist to Thee because Thou hast made us worthy to stand before Thee and minster-as-preists (ἱερατεύειν) to Thee.”[16]

Hippolytus, The Apostolic Tradition I.ix, “…the bishop alone shall lay on hands at the ordaining of a deacon for this reason: that he is not ordained for a priesthood (sacerdotio), but for service of the bishop that he may do the things commanded by him.”[17]

Hippolytus, I.ii.I.iii.1-5,– “Let the bishop be ordained after he has been chosen by all the people. When he has been named and shall please all, let him, with the presbytery and such bishops as may be present, assemble with the people on a Sunday. While all give their consent, the bishops shall lay their hands upon him, and the presbytery shall stand by in silence. All indeed shall keep silent, praying in their heart for the descent of the Spirit. Then one of the bishops who are present shall, at the request of all, lay his hand on him who is ordained bishop, and shall pray as follows, saying: ‘God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ… Thou hast appointed 2 the borders of thy church by the word of thy grace, predestinating from the beginning the righteous race of Abraham. And making them princes and priests (ἴερεις), and 3 leaving not thy sanctuary (ἄγιασμα) without a Ministry (αλειτυργετον), thou hast from the beginning of the world been well pleased to be glorified among those 2 whom thou hast chosen. Pour 4 forth now that power, which is thine, of thy royal Spirit, which 3thou gavest to thy beloved Servant 4 Jesus Christ, which he bestowed on his holy apostles, who established the church in every place, the church which thou hast sanctified unto unceasing glory and praise of thy name. Thou who knowest the hearts of 5 all,5 grant to this thy servant, whom thou hast chosen to be bishop, [to feed thy holy flock] 6 and to serve (αγαιν) as thy high priest (αρχιερατευειν) without blame, ministering (λειτουργουντα) night and day, to propitiate thy countenance without ceasing and to offer thee the gifts ( προσφερειν σοι τα δωρα) of thy holy church. And by the 6 Spirit of high-priesthood to have authority to remit sins according to thy commandment, to assign the lots according to thy precept, to loose every bond according to the authority which thou gavest to thy apostles, and to please thee in meekness and purity of heart, offering (προσφιροντα) to thee an odour (οσμεν ευοδιας) of sweet savour. …”[18]

Hippolytus, viii.1 –“And when a presbyter is ordained the bishop shall lay his hand upon his head, the presbyters also touching him. And he shall pray over him according to the aforementioned form which we gave before over the bishop, paying and saying: ‘O God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ – Look upon this Thy servant and impart to him the spirit of grace and counsel, that he may share in the presbyterate and govern Thy people in a pure heart.” And Thou didst look upon the people of Thy choice and dist command Moses to choose presbyters whom Thou didst fill with spirit which Thou hadst granted to Thy minister.”

Cyprian of Carthage to Rogatanius, c. 240, Epistle LXV.1 – “Cyprian to his brother Rogatianus, greeting. I and my colleagues who were present with me were deeply and grievously distressed, dearest brother, on reading your letter in which you complained of your deacon (diacono), that, forgetful of your priestly (sacerdotalis) station, and unmindful of his own office (offici)and ministry (ministerii), he had provoked you by his insults and injuries. … assured that all we your colleagues would regard it as a matter of satisfaction, whatever you should do by your priestly (sacerdotali) power in respect of an insolent deacon.”[19]

Cyprian of Carthage, c. 240, Epistle LXIV.1, To Epictetus and to the Congregation of Assurae, Concerning Fortunatianus, Formerly Their Bishop - “…I was gravely and grievously disturbed, dearest brethren, at learning that Fortunatianus, formerly bishop (episcopum) among you, after the sad lapse of his fall, was now wishing to act as if he were sound, and beginning to claim for himself the episcopate ( episcopatum). Which thing distressed me… dares still to claim to himself the priesthood ( sacerdotium) which he has betrayed, as if it were right, from the altars (aras) of the devil, to approach to the altar (ad altare Dei) of God. (Roberts, New Advent; Migne 4, 401.)

Ibid. 2 – “Since, therefore, the Lord threatens these torments, these punishments in the day of judgment, to those who obey the devil and sacrifice (sacrificant) to idols, how does he think that he can act as a priest (sacerdote ) of God who has obeyed and served the priests (sacerdotibus) of the devil; or how does he think that his hand can be transferred to the sacrifice (sacrificium) of God and the prayer of the Lord which has been captive to sacrilege and to crime, when in the sacred Scriptures God forbids the priests (sacerdotes) to approach to sacrifice (sacrificium) even if they have been in lighter guilt; and says in Leviticus: The man in whom there shall be any blemish or stain shall not approach to offer gifts to God? Leviticus 21:17 Also in Exodus: And let the priests which come near to the Lord God sanctify themselves, lest perchance the Lord forsake them. Exodus 19:22 And again: And when they come near to minister at the altar of the Holy One, they shall not bring sin upon them, lest they die.Exodus 28:43” (Roberts New Advent) Note complete comparison with Levitical and pagan preists and sacrifices.

Origen, c. 240, Homily on Exodus, XIII,3 - “You who are accustomed to take part in divine mysteries know, when you receive the body of the Lord, how you protect it with all caution and veneration lest any small part fall from it, lest anything of the consecrated gift be lost. For you believe, and correctly, that you are answerable if anything falls from there by neglect. But if you are so careful to preserve His body, and rightly so, how do you think that there is less guild to have neglected God’s word than to have neglected his body?” (Heine 380-381)

Decrees of Fabian [Pope, c. 250], from the codex of decrees in sixteen books, from the fifth book, and the seventh and ninth chapters – “That the oblation of the altar should be made each Lord’s day… We decree that on each Lord’s day the oblation of the altar should be made by men and women in bread and wine, in order that by means of these sacrifices they may be released from the burden of their sins… The sacrifice is not to be accepted from the hand of a priest who is not competent to discharge the prayers or actions (actiones) and other observances in the mass according to religious usage.”[20] The bread and wine are the sacrifice that is offered by the people.

Eusebius, c. 320, Proof of the Gospel, 1.10 - “And so all these predictions of immemorial prophecy are being fulfilled at this present time through the teaching of our Saviour among all nations. Truth bears witness with the prophetic voice with which God, rejecting the Mosaic sacrifices, foretells that the future lies with us:

"Wherefore from the rising of the sun unto the setting my name shall be glorified among the nations. And in every place incense shall be offered to my name, and a pure offering."

We sacrifice, therefore, to Almighty God a sacrifice of praise. We sacrifice the divine and holy and sacred offering. We sacrifice anew according to the new covenant the pure sacrifice. But the sacrifice to God is called "a contrite heart." "A humble and a contrite heart thou wilt not despise." Yes, and we offer the incense of the prophet, in every place bringing to Him the sweet-smelling fruit of the sincere Word of God, offering it in our prayers to Him. … So, then, we sacrifice and offer incense: On the one hand when we celebrate the Memorial of His great Sacrifice according to the Mysteries He delivered to us, and bring to God the Eucharist for our salvation with holy hymns and prayers; while on the other we consecrate ourselves to Him alone and to the Word His High Priest,[21]

The Anaphora of Addai and Mari, c. 200-500, current liturgy of the Uniate Chaldeans. Note that there is no account of the Institution and, in fact, no mention of bread or cup, Body or Blood, though there are many prayers similar to other liturgies and references to Christ’s death. The offering itself, not Christ’s death on the cross, is to bring forgiveness, though it is not directly said what is offered. “Let thy Holy Spirit, Lord, come and rest upon this offering of thy servants, let him bless it and sanctify it, so that it may procure for us, Lord, pardon of our offences and forgiveness of our sins, the great hope of the resurrection of the dead, and the new life in the kingdom of heaven with all those who were pleasing to thee.”[22]

Mohler - “By the time of the Roman occupation every Jewish community in Palestine and in the diaspora had its own Sanhedrin… elected by the people to administer the community affairs… Although not of the priestly line, the Jewish presbyters of the Roman era were, nevertheless, ordained with a laying on of hands traced back to Moses’ laying on of hands and sharing his sprit with Joshua, which Joshua, in turn, shared with the elders of Israel (Nm 27:18ff; Dt 34:9). … The local Jewish presbyterates of the Roman period were lay bodies dealing largely with civil government and judiciary matters.” (Mohler, 3-4). “Important members of the Sanhedrin were the apostles, who as the foremost ordained scholars of their generation were empowered to act in place of the Nasi [patriarch]… The local sanhedrins probably dependent on their apostle and the ultimately on the Nasi in Jerusalem were likely models for the first Chrsitian prebyterates. “(Mohler, 7-9).

Divine Liturgy of the Apostle and Evangelist Mark the Disciple of the Holy Peter, Note that what happens in the church is connected to the worship and altar in Heaven, and the offering is of the prayers, incense, bread and wine, etc. before the words of consecration and epiclesis, and thus is a thank-offering. VI – “The Priest before the Gospel is read, offers incense, and says: - Accept at Thy holy, heavenly, and reasonable altar, O Lord, the incense we offer in presence of Thy sacred glory. Send down upon us in return the grace of Thy Holy Spirit, for Thou art blessed, and let Thy glory encircle us.” X – “ The holy things are carried to the altar, and the Priest prays thus:— O holy, highest, awe-inspiring God, who dwellest among the saints, sanctify us, and deem us worthy of Thy reverend priesthood. Bring us to Thy precious altar with a good conscience, and cleanse our hearts from all pollution. Drive away from us all unholy thoughts, and sanctify our souls and minds. Grant that, with reverence of Thee, we may perform the service of our holy fathers, and propitiate ( )Thy presence through all time; for Thou art He who blesseth and sanctifieth all things, and to Thee we ascribe glory and thanks. XIII – “We offer this reasonable and bloodless sacrifice, which all nations, from the rising to the setting of the sun, from the north and the south, present to Thee, O Lord; for great is Thy name among all peoples, and in all places are incense, sacrifice, and oblation offered to Thy holy name.” XV< - “Accept, O God, by Thy ministering archangels at Thy holy, heavenly, and reasonable altar in the spacious heavens, the thank-offerings of those who offer sacrifice and oblation, and of those who desire to offer much or little, in secret or openly, but have it not to give. Accept the thank-offerings of those who have presented them this day, as Thou didst accept the gifts of Thy righteous Abel: The Priest offers incense, and says:— As Thou didst accept the sacrifice of our father Abraham, the incense of Zacharias, the alms of Cornelius, and the widow’s two mites, accept also the thank-offerings of these, and give them for the things of time the things of eternity, and for the things of earth the things of heaven. Defend, O Lord, our most holy and blessed Papas Δ, whom Thou hast fore-ordained to rule over Thy Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and our most pious Bishop Δ, that they through many years of peace may, according to Thy holy and blessed will, fulfil the sacred priesthood committed to their care, and dispense aright the word of truth. Remember the orthodox bishops everywhere, the elders, deacons, sub-deacons, readers, singers, monks, virgins, widows, and laity.”[23]

An early version of the Liturgy of St. Mark is found in the Strasburg Papyrus from the 4th or 5th century, which contains, “Through him and with him and with the Holy Spirit we offer thee in thanksgiving this spiritual oblation, this bloodless sacrifice, that all peoples offer thee, from the rising of the sun to its setting, from north to south, for thy name is great among the nations and in ever place they offer incense to thy holy name, a pure offering, a sacrifice and an oblation…”[24]

Modern Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom used in Byzantine Catholic Churches – At the beginning, the theology is made plain by the presider: “…by the power of the Holy Spirit 2 enable me, clothed with the grace of the priesthood, to stand before this, Your Holy Table, and offer the sacred Mystery of Your holy and most pure Body and precious Blood.” After the words of institution, “Moreover we offer to You

this spiritual and unbloody sacrifice,364 and we implore, and pray, and entreat You,

send down Your Holy Spirit upon us and upon these Gifts here set forth.” Then come numerous epiclesis prayers, then, “Moreover, we offer to You this spiritual sacrifice369

for those who have fallen asleep in faith... especially for our most holy, most pure, most blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God and ever‐Virgin Mary… for the holy Prophet, Forerunner and Baptist, John… We further offer You this spiritual sacrifice377

for the whole world, for the holy, catholic, and apostolic Church…”[25]

The Modern Roman Rite includes the offering of bread and wine, but it also has a set of offering prayers to be said after the consecration, offering not the bread and wine of the people but the Body and Blood of the Lord. Thus the focus has shifted away from the priest offering the people’s firstfruits or thank-offering gifts to the priest’s offering of Christ’s sacrifice which is also the people’s sacrifice. While this, on the one hand, might seem to make no sense, on the other hand, to have a priest offer first fruits, and then to suddenly have them turned into a paschal lamb, and then to not offer the lamb, also makes no sense. It is not surprising that prayers began to develop offering the lamb. It is also possible that this part of the liturgy was in use far earlier but kept secret before the Edict of Toleration. Eucharistic Prayer 1, after the consecration, - “As we celebrate the memorial of the blessed Passion…we, your servants and your holy people, offer to your glorious majesty from the gifts that you have given us, this pure victim, this holy victim, this spotless victim, the holy Bread of eternal life, and the Chalice of everlasting salvation. Be pleased to look upon these offerings… a holy sacrifice a spotless victim. … command that these gifts be borne by the hands of your holy Angel to your altar on high…” Eucharistic Prayer II, after the consecration, - “as we celebrated the memorial of his Death and Resurrection, we offer you, Lord, the Bread of life and the Chalice of salvation…” Eucharistic Prayer III, after the consecration, - “as we celebrated the memorial….we offer you in thanksgiving this holy and living sacrifice. Look, we pray, upon the oblation of your Church, and, recognizing the sacrificial Victim… May he make of us an eternal offering to you… May this Sacrifice of our reconciliation… advance the peace and salvation of all the world.” Eucharistic Prayer IV, after the consecration, - “as we now celebrated the memorial…we offer you his Body and Blood, the sacrifice acceptable to you which brings salvation to the whole world. Look, O Lord, upon the Sacrifice which you yourself have provided for your Church…”

[1] I Clement 36:1-2; Richardson 60, Holmes, 92.

[2] I Clement 44:4; Richardson, 64; Holmes, 104.

[3] Stevenson, 12

[4] Richardson, 89; Migne 5, 650.

[5] Richardson, 100; Migne 5, 682.

[6] Roberts, 113; Migne 5, 913.

[7] Richardson 108; Migne 5, 700.

[8] Quasten, 68.

[9] Richardson 115.

[10] Stevenson, 17.

[11] Stevenson, 17.

[12] Roberts, online NewAdvent.org, Migne 7,

[13] Syrian Didascalia, 21, in Stewart-Sykes, 93-94.

[14] Roberts, 677, Migne 1, 1326-1327.

[15] Apostolic Tradition I.iv.11, Dix, 9.

[16] Dix, 9.

[17] Dix, 15

[18] Easton, 33.

[19] Roberts, New Advent.org; Migne 4, 406-407.

[20] Roberts, 640.

[21] Ferrar, www.tertullian.org

[22] Deiss 141.

[23] Roberts, 550ff.

[24] Deiss 145-6.

[25] The Divine Liturgy of Our Father Among the Saints John Chrysostom, Ruthenian Recension A Study Text Working Draft October 2015, p. 52, 67-70